Gran Torino Movie Analysis Essay Example

Gran Torino Movie Analysis Essay Example Gran Torino Movie Analysis Essay Gran Torino Movie Analysis Essay In the film Gran Torino, by Clint Eastwood, Eastwood plays a racially severe and desolate war veteran that doesnt truly have a delicate side from the outset for anybody after his significant other dead. He rewarded everybody the equivalent, with a testy demeanor. He would mind his own business cause he felt it was the best thing of him to recoup from his lost. He wouldnt take any hand outs or help from anybody cause he accepted he could do everything without anyone else and didnt need anybody. The film shows extraordinary instances of how he went from a stood up irritable elderly person to a sort hearted caring man at long last. In the film when Walt (Clint Eastwood) gets Thao attempting to take his vehicle late around evening time for the inception since his insane cousin and companions were attempting to persuade him to be to a greater degree a man and be separated of the group. After Thao was gotten and held up by firearm point by Walt, he figures out how to escape. After that the following day his cousin and companions returned around causing issues and Walt comes out and holds them up by firearm point to frighten them away. Thaos mother felt that Thao had an obligation to Walt now for getting him out, so he needed to come work for Walt for a bit. : Thao would be given asks that would get him grimy and truly need to place a ton of vitality into. Walt began to back off on him towards the end since he saw something other than what's expected in Thao then the various terrible children in the area. Another model from the film is when Sue welcomes Walt over to a family assembling that they were having. He felt separated of the family in light of how he was invited in and how agreeable he felt sooner or later. From everybody welcoming him and from all the food and friendliness that was given on his visit. He truly began to click with Sue to a point were Sue could tell that they were getting close. Now Walt was beginning to turn out to be increasingly quiet and kind hearted. Walt one day when Thao was in his lawn planting and cultivating, they began talking and the purpose of Thao needing to bring in cash so he could set aside however he wasnt getting paid working for Walt. Walt saw that Thao was acceptable with his hands and took Thao to go land his Position with Walts companion in the development business. He helped him out of landing him the Position and purchasing all the apparatuses that Thao would need to begin the Job since he saw Thao as one of his children. They were getting close so Walt didnt have an issue doing it. Walts delicate side was beginning to appear. At long last Walt ended up being a sort hearted elderly person, he was somewhat harsh at the film Walt does one final nice thought for Sue and Thao. He proceeded to stand up to the pack, to get them to disregard them. He went in there realizing it was perilous and that he wasnt going to make it out alive so he professed to threaten to use a weapon on the posse so they would take shots at him and go to Jail perpetually so Sue and Thao could live in harmony at long last without stressing over them. Su and Thao were thankful yet they were dismal that they needed to lose a companion for it to occur.

Reducing prejudice in society

Lessening preference in the public arena A significant issue despite everything happening in todays society is partiality. We can watch this in the wide scopes of proof accessible. . It is as yet answered to be in any organization, for example, school or work and can be gained from how we see others. The present paper plans to investigate and change the writing that can be found encompassing the point. Preference and segregation are an impression of how others react to individuals of another gathering and mirror their full of feeling, conduct and psychological responses to the individuals inside these various gatherings. The writing encompassing this point is immense, so this survey will concentrate on a particular strand assembled from the writing encompassing partiality and focus on bias decrease inside society. Where does it start? There is a negative idea design that happens in youth as indicated by Klein (1992.) Media and books contain generalizing and in this manner it is this that makes the establishment for prejudicing happening in grown-ups. Degner and Wentura (2010) completed an examination that took a gander at the programmed enactment of preference in kids and teenagers (9 years to 15 years.) There was a ceaseless example proposing a direct formative increment of programmed bias with critical impacts of outgroup antagonism which just showed up encompassing 12 to multi year olds. In any case, consequences of more youthful kids demonstrated no sign of programmed preference initiation. These outcomes propose that in spite of the fact that kids are expected to secure partiality at a lot more youthful ages, automatization of negative perspectives likely could be identified with formative procedures in early immaturity. What society sees as wonderful is constrained by the media through magazines and so on. An article called Preventing Prejudice: A Guide for Counselors, Educators, and Parents, composed by Ponterotto, Utsey, and Pedersen (2006) gave a valuable knowledge. This bit of writing covers a scope of themes on diminishing preference, one being the jobs and duties of those in a situation to decrease bias, for example, educators and guides and so forth. This is a view which is likewise shared by numerous others, who concur that the study hall is the place the early indications of preference are seen and it is there that they ought to be lightened. This would be an immediate methodology by the educator. Pate (1995) accepted that the instructor ought to train the understudies to participate in against partiality programs by perusing useful books on the subject, incorporating a week after week class to illuminate the understudies and such different exercises. Anyway Pate admitted this was not an effective strategy as understudies may resent the guidelines and in this manner reinforcin g a preference along these lines, postponed measures are the main goals to make a demeanor change with the immediate methodology being utilized over the long haul. Instructors have the force and intends to actualize partiality decrease strategies. This is an announcement many case, for example, Dessel (2010), and could be seen as being straight forward and valid. Notwithstanding, there is as yet an absence of exhibition of this in real life as something which can be rehashed in any school. Again other writing from Pate demonstrates that the psychological approachs rule is that individuals can decrease bias on the off chance that they find out about different gatherings and think all the more unmistakably. Pate (1995) expressed that different mediation endeavors which incorporate; sympathy just as an expansion in information and thought of different gatherings, diverse in a few different ways from the understudies, are successful. Different examinations likewise share this view about the viability of the intellectual methodology in bias decrease. For example, Katz and Zalk (1978) found the capacity to perceive and acknowledge contrasts among par t gatherings could advance preference decrease. Other study hall approaches may likewise work in decreasing preference. A few instances of this option are; semantics, counter-generalization approach, social inundation, the investigation of social human studies, creating instructional materials and worth explanation (Pate, 1995). The basic issue is as yet an absence of proof and configuration imperfections. Bigler (1999) noticed that preference decrease explore has experienced restrictions because of issues with the plan of numerous investigations. A portion of these incorporate an excessively oversimplified model, predisposition in the estimating of mentalities and a need for longitudinal examinations so as to find out if there are any maintainable impacts from the decrease methodologies. A few examinations in the writing have really detailed that, despite the fact that systems are actualized for lessening preference, there are upsetting impacts . . . of expanded racial predisposition among youngsters (Bigler 1999.) Copious measures of writing show projects and plans of how they can hypothetically lessen partiality since the beginning, for example, Weston (1990.) The investigation asserted that painstakingly picked decrease strategies joined into the present educational program can diminish preference. This anyway is guaranteed by numerous scholars in various manners, despite the fact that the examination didnt demonstrate to have any legitimate proof to back up the hypothesis. Different specialists have conceded there is a redundancy in the rules with respect to how we can lessen bias. Work completed by Parrens (2007) gives a decent foundation on bias and is smart expressing that the decrease of dangerous partiality is the obligation of society. Anyway this examination does not have the nearness of new research, as much as of now exists in the huge measure of writing accessible. All things being equal, it highlights a few elements which have been raised before to lessen preference however underlines another significance of these elements where they had already not been considered significantly significant and examines them further. The concentration in a great part of the writing was on intercession in early youngsters to kill preference; anyway this center has been changed to guarantee the consideration of how social inspirational procedures and different parts of a childs social cooperations can impact them in their disposition towards partiality. (Socia l Identity Development Theory (SIDT), (Davis et al 2007). A great part of the writing incorporates speculations to lessen partiality; anyway Dovidio Gaertner (1993) found that the customary strategies and methods remembered for such writing may not really be exceptionally viable in diminishing bias. As demonstrated by the material accessible in brain science, intergroup contact is by all accounts a fundamental methods for decreasing bias. Allports (1954) contact hypothesis contends that four significant conditions must be met to successfully lessen bias. Pettigrew (1998) developed Allports hypothesis in his intergroup contact hypothesis by including another state of companionship potential. Ideal intergroup contact requires time for cross-bunch companionships to create (Pettigrew, 1998) An examination was directed to inspect the contention and partiality among Israelis and Palestinians. The current partiality here was accounted for to have advanced the turn of events and safeguarding of two significant gatherings living in direct obstruction and opposition. Stephen et al (2004) directed such examinations. Despite the fact that the examination appears to be encouraging in its push to endeavor to demoralize and expel biased generalizing in little gatherings, writing has a few constraints which should be considered. It concentrated essentially on decreasing preference among Israelis and Palestinians. This accordingly inspires worry concerning whether there can be a speculation towards strife in different populaces. Every populace is unique and diverse hidden issues exist, in this way the referenced intercessions may not really be fitting to all populaces, prompting a potential necessity for altering as indicated by the populace. The writing additionally wavered in its absence of longitudinal research. From the examination the outcomes demonstrated wanted impacts; anyway these could very well just be present moment. Bargal (2008) contemplated for receiving a long-extend explore configuration, checking the investigation after some time, rather than it being a momentary mediation. Obviously, more research is required around there so as to decide if these intercessions talked about, offer durable impacts as far as compromise and diminishing generalizations and partiality viably. End The greater part of the writing illuminates us that the study hall is the best spot to lessen bias because of the earliness of which it is perceived and can be controlled. This at that point suggests that the understudies can learn compassion and other attractive feelings towards the individuals who are distinctive to them which could prompt superfluous sentiments of us versus them,a exemplary in-bunch versus out-bunch circumstance. As indicated by writing, by the age of 10 a kid may rapidly build up a biased mentality because of this getting independent (Yee and Brown (1992), Rutland (1999) and Rutland et al (2005.) However, to approve this case, more research ought to be directed with a specific fixation on the age contrasts and the earth at home, which may raise antagonistic perspectives, thus reinforcing a preference inclination. The writing should utilize to a greater degree a subjective based strategy and information, instead of the huge measure of quantitative information, to decide whether the outcomes strengthen the current records. Again since the primary decrease methodologies are inadequately upheld by legitimate examinations, they are only recommendations, deficiently sponsored up by explore. The investigations on these systems are ambiguous, lacking required points of interest on certain concentrates, for example, sexual orientation, age and individual foundation. Future investigations should plan to remember a bigger concentration for systems including instruction and evoking restraint and ought to especially endeavor to allude to various kinds of race and ethnicity. One such bit of writing appeared to show the best comprehension of preference decrease strategies by offering field tried instruments to decide approaches to diminish it. This was composed by Ponterotto et al (2006) as discusse

The Relationship Between PTSD and Shame

The Relationship Between PTSD and Shame PTSD Related Conditions Print The Relationship Between PTSD and Shame By Matthew Tull, PhD twitter Matthew Tull, PhD is a professor of psychology at the University of Toledo, specializing in post-traumatic stress disorder. Learn about our editorial policy Matthew Tull, PhD Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on June 24, 2019 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Overview Symptoms & Diagnosis Causes & Risk Factors Treatment Living With In Children Felbert + Eickenberg / STOCK4B / Getty Images Following exposure to a traumatic event, people may experience a variety of emotions, such as fear, anxiety, sadness, anger, guilt, or shame. Although all of these emotions may be very distressing, shame can be a particularly difficult emotion to cope with after trauma. So much so that there is increasing evidence that the experience of shame is associated with the severity of post-traumatic stress disorder or PSTD symptoms following a traumatic event. Before we discuss the relationship between shame and PTSD, its first important to understand what shame is and how it differs from other emotions. The Difference Between Shame and Guilt Shame is often considered a self-conscious emotion and its generally very closely related to the emotion of guilt. In fact, many people have difficulty distinguishing between shame and guilt. Heres the difference: Shame is an emotion that occurs when you evaluate or judge yourself  in a negative light. For example, you might experience shame if you view yourslef as worthless, weak, bad, or useless.Guilt occurs when you evaluate a behavior or an action as negative. For example, if you borrow money from someone and then fail to pay them back, you might experience guilt because you did something that can be perceived as wrong or inconsiderate. Its important to distinguish between shame and guilt because they influence your behavior in different ways. Guilt can motivate you to make amends, apologize, or correct a behavior. Doing such things will help alleviate guilt and may increase the extent to which you feel positive about yourself. In this way, guilt can be a helpful emotion. Shame, on the other hand, is rarely useful. With shame, you may be more likely to engage in self-punishment (such as through deliberate self-harm) or isolate yourself from others. This is going to do little to alleviate the shame in the long-term and can even intensify your shame. Differences Between Shame and Guilt The Link Between Shame and PTSD Studies have consistently found a strong association between shame and the experience of PTSD symptoms following a traumatic event. For example, the experience of shame has been found to be connected to the severity of PTSD among older male veterans who were prisoners of war and women who had been exposed to interpersonal violence. Interestingly, these studies found that shame had a stronger connection with PTSD than guilt. Researchers have theorized that the experience of shame following a traumatic event may lead you to use unhealthy coping strategies, such as alcohol use, avoidance, or self-destructive behaviors, which can interfere with your ability to process the emotions associated with the traumatic event. This inability to process emotions may then contribute to the development or intensification of PTSD symptoms. Additionally, since the experience of shame can be related to judgments of weakness or worth, survivors may feel more stigma about having experienced a traumatic event. This stigma could then prevent you from seeking out the appropriate care. Reducing the Experience of Shame There are coping strategies that may be particularly useful for shame after a trauma. Opposite Action When experiencing shame, its important to take opposite action. That is, do something that is counter to the emotion of shame. For example, if shame is causing you to feel as though you need to do something self-destructive, do something that is about caring for yourself instead. Self-soothing and self-compassion coping strategies can be particularly useful in this regard. Distraction Another strategy is known as distraction. Just as the name implies, distraction is anything you do to temporarily take your attention off of a strong emotion. Sometimes focusing on a strong emotion can make it feel even stronger and more out of control. So by temporarily distracting yourself, you may give the emotion some time to decrease in intensity, making it easier to manage. Therapy Certain treatments may also be useful in reducing shame. Cognitive processing therapy for PTSD has been found to be effective in reducing shame among people with PTSD. Dialectical behavior  therapy can also be useful in reducing shame, as can seeking out social support. A Word From Verywell These healthy coping strategies are not without their challenges, but the more that you can use them in response to shame, the less likely it becomes that shame will take hold and lead to unhealthy behaviors. If you are interested in finding a therapist trained in these treatments, you can search for one in your area through the website of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT).

Is Canada A Free And Democratic Society Essay - 1294 Words

Canada is a free and democratic society that protects and guarantees individual Charter rights and freedoms (Grebowicz, 2011). However, these rights and freedoms are not absolute and can be limited when they infringe on the rights and freedoms of others (Grebowicz, 2011). As a result, the possession of child pornography limits freedom of expression as it innately harmful to children and the broader society (Bray, 2009). Furthermore, society suffers when destructive expressions and behaviors are reinforced (Grebowicz, 2011). Additionally, the dignity and equality of children rights is violated through the existence of pornographic materials independent of its distribution. Furthermore, a collective societal goal is to protect children from harm, one of the most vulnerable societal groups (Bray, 2009). Therefore, laws that criminalizes the possession of child pornography are enacted (Bray, 2009). As a result, competing rights and values often emerges; therefore, the courts are in plac e to create a balance (Grebowicz, 2011). Hart’s work through legal positivism argues that laws are used to govern society; therefore, the population is expected to abide by them. As a result, conformity from its members keeps society running smoothly and efficiently (Stith, 2008). However, disruptive members to society are sanctioned to guarantee conformity from the rest of the population (Stith, 2008). Additionally, the criminal code of Canada dictates behaviors that are unacceptable in societyShow MoreRelatedThe Canadian Charter Of Rights And Freedoms1504 Words   |  7 PagesRights and Freedoms(CCORAF) Guarantees a Free and Democratic Society The Charter of Rights and Freedoms upholds the individual rights of all Canadians. Agree or disagree with the following statement. The Charter is part of Canada’s constitution; the highest law of Canada, which sets out the framework for how Canada is to be governed. The CCORAF sets out those rights and freedoms that Canadians feel are necessary to maintain Canada as a free and democratic community. The Charter created several constitutionalRead MoreEssay on Democracy: A Unique Form of People Power1113 Words   |  5 Pagesfrom the Greek words of â€Å"demos†, referring to people and â€Å"Kratos†, meaning power . The Greeks are credited with developing the earliest forms of democracy around 2,500 years ago. India, Russia, Japan and many other nations have only recently become democratic. Therefore, despite its lengthy history as a concept, democracy has only really become a global reality during the latter half of the 20th century. Democracy means many things to many different people. 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The decision as to how to determine whether rights (or values) of a free press or right to a fair trial shouldRead MoreMinority And Majority Rights : Canada1389 Words   |  6 Pages Minority and Majority Rights in Canada Olivia Gomes CLU 4U1 Mr. McCormick Tuesday, November 11, 2014 In recent decades of Canadian history, Canada’s social and political change has rapidly formed visible minority and majority groups- Canada has had formally entrenched a constitution, withstood two attempts by the Quebec’s provincial government to secede from the federation, and undertaken a radical shift in immigration policy that tripled the visible minority population. These changesRead MoreInfluence of Compulsory Voting1626 Words   |  7 Pagesand the turnout of voters grew, other democratic countries began wondering if the idea should be implemented globally. Research began on how this implementation affected countries with compulsory voting in place and how it would affect other countries such as Canada (Twomey, 2013). The idea that Canada, or another similarly democratic country, should pass a policy of compulsory voting would be against the very foundation of freedom that defines a democratic state. It brings to mind three questionsRead MoreThe Culture Of Bang ladesh And Canada1497 Words   |  6 Pagesfollowed in the two different nations where different cultures are followed (Kittler, et. al., 2011). This assignment discusses the different business culture present in Bangladesh and Canada. This assignment covers the similarities and differences which exist between two different cultures followed in Bangladesh and Canada. According to Mihaela (2014), the culture of a country contributes to the development of any country it helps in attracting the opportunities in business. The business culture of everyRead MoreIs The Canadian Charter Of Rights And Freedoms Perfect?1276 Words   |  6 PagesCanadian Constitution as part of the Canada Act in 1982. However, the Charter was Canada’s second attempt to protect the rights and freedoms of its citizens all throughout the country and on every level of government. The Canadian Bill of Rights, which preceded the Charter was enacted in 1960. However, being only a federal statute rather than a full constitutional document, it had no power and application to provincial laws. In addition, the Supreme Court of Canada only narrowly interpreted the Bill

A Farewell To Arms Character Analysis - 2009 Words

A recent study from the Psychology Department of the University of Illinois proved that personalities can change if a person is presented with a significant life changing event. The study began with a personality test ranking participants’ openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism on a scale from one to ten. Over the course of the study, one hundred thirty-five participants were asked to create weekly plans to change a major part of their personality. By the study’s conclusion, almost every participant saw noticeable improvements in their personality focus area. In Ernest Hemingway’s 1929 novel A Farewell To Arms, the answer to the hypothesis of this study is repeated. The novel s protagonist, Henry†¦show more content†¦Instead, the most plausible cause of Henry’s aloofness is his lack of emotional intelligence. Very soon, however, a life-changing experience occurs; he falls in love with Catherine. In the time bet ween his first meeting with her and the time of his first explicit statement of love for her in his narration, his capacity for emotional intimacy increased. His leap in capacity for human connection had not yet occurred after his major injury, made plainly by his declaration to the priest: â€Å"I don t love† (Hemingway 72). The crossing of the Rubicon that begins Catherine and Frederick’s true relationship and ends their pseudo-romance is Catherine’s purposeful transference to the hospital that Henry has been placed in for surgery and recovery from his war wounds. This commitment to Henry inspires him to react in a truly evolutionary manner, â€Å"‘Hello, darling,’ she said. She looked fresh and young and very beautiful. I thought I had never seen anyone so beautiful. ‘Hello,’ I said. When I saw her I was in love with her. Everything turned over inside of me.†(Hemingway 91). Henry’s isolation from Catherine and anticipat ion for her arrival to the hospital seems to have inspired great improvement in his emotional capacity due to the rapid change from the dialogue in which he said he was unable to love, toShow MoreRelatedOn Hemingway‚Äà ´s Pessimism in a Farewell to Wars1017 Words   |  5 Pagesthrough his works and the manhood. However, not much attention has been paid to the tragic vision that Hemingway tries to show in A Farewell to Arms. In this thesis, I’m going to explore the tragic vision from the aspects of its contents and the techniques that Hemingway employs in A Farewell to Arms. Through careful investigation and sufficient illustration and analysis, I will conclude that Hemingway’s tragic vision pervades the whole novel both thematically and technically. Therefore, I shall illustrateRead MoreCoping with War: A Comparison Between Slaughterhouse Five and A Farewell to Arms1630 Words   |  7 Pagesnovels A Farewell to Arms and Slaughterhouse Five. 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The film ultimately slows to a crawl, passing through the window of a whorehouse to meet the eyes of Frederic Henry watching the snow falling. As we attach ourselves to Frederic Henrys perspective

Translation of image in metaphor Free Essays

string(53) " implicit similarity may be understood from context\." The present study Is an attempt to Investigate the translation of image In metaphors. In translation of metaphor, It Is necessary to start with Investigating the concept of metaphor. So the definition of metaphor and different kinds of metaphor are presented. We will write a custom essay sample on Translation of image in metaphor or any similar topic only for you Order Now Imagery is a key concept in metaphor that helps the reader to visualize and experience the author’s writing. Different type of imagery also presented. Then translation of metaphors ,including cognitive approach, is considered. At last the translation of metaphor in Persian poetry is investigated. Introduction Translation plays an essential role in transferring message from one culture to another (Batavia,2008). Deference between SSL and TTL can sometimes pose challenges in the process of translation. One of these challenges is the translation of metaphor. Metaphors can become a translation problem, since transferring from one language and culture to another Is difficult. â€Å"Translation of metaphor will be always seen as problematic, no matter which approach to metaphor Is chosen† (Olivier, 1998:5). Literature review There are no Instructions for devising metaphors; there Is no manual for determining hat a metaphor â€Å"means† or â€Å"says†; there is no test for metaphor that does not call for taste. A metaphor implies a kind and degree of artistic success; there are no unsuccessful metaphors There are tasteless metaphors, but these are turns that nevertheless have brought something off, even if it were not worth bringing off or could have been brought off better. (Davidson 29) According to Adage(1987:77) â€Å"metaphor presents a particularly searching tests of the translator’s ability’. Furthers Olivier (1998:5) claims: â€Å"the translation of metaphor (†¦ ) Is problematic no matter which approach to metaphor is chosen†. Degrees of translatability of metaphor are classified as follows: 1 . Metaphors are untranslatable: the advocates of this are Nadia, Avian and Darlene, and Adage. They believe that translation creates a different metaphor In the target language. 2. Metaphors are fully translatable: Sloppier, Reels and Mason claim that there is no problem in metaphor translation. Metaphor is translated as a new metaphor in target language. 3. Metaphors are translatable but pose a degree of interlinguas in equivalence: Van Den Broke, Arabian Olivarez, Tour and Newark have this view. 4. Conciliatory approach: Snell Horny said that he text type determine the range of rendering. Mandible(1 995) focus on the translator’s reaction time to show differences in the translation of SCM ( similar mapping condition) and the DIM ( different mapping condition). The work of other theorists like Coves(2005), AH Hosannas(2007), Male(2008) and Rainmakers and Gaur(2010) are all product-oriented, show that translation products depend on SCM and DIM. The common basis between all of these studies Is that â€Å"the more the two languages conceptualize metaphors In a salary way. The easier the task of translation will be. Also some research have been done In relevance to the effect of translation on metaphor by Schaeffer(2004) and Starriest(1993). Towboats (1993: has to be culture specific, thus presenting what amounts to often insurmountable problems for translation, which is by definition a transactional process. Schaeffer (2004): Discussed some implications for a cognitive theory of metaphor to translating metaphor without trying to draw a theory or a model. Dickens (2005): Simplified Model, Full Model, a reworking of Newark in terms of legalized and non- legalized metaphors, where Arabic-English translation of metaphor is reduced to exuberance and congruence. First, it is claimed that if two languages have radically different conceptual systems, then translation from one language to the other is impossible. Second, it is often claimed that if translation is impossible, then speakers of one language cannot understand the other language. Third, it is often claimed that if the languages have different conceptual systems, then someone who speaks one language will be unable to learn the other language because he lacks the right conceptual system. Fourth, to confuse matters further, it is sometimes claimed that since people â€Å"can† learn idiotically different languages, those languages couldn’t have different conceptual systems (Alaska, 1987: 311). What is metaphor? According to Newark metaphor is † any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a physical word, the personification of an abstraction, the application of a word or collocation to what is doesn’t literally denote, to describe one thing in terms of another. † He also introduces the polygamous words and English phrasal verb as metaphor. Most people think that metaphor is used only in the lit erature and is a feature of language. They introduce metaphor as â€Å"matter of words instead of thought r action†. But metaphors are used in every day conversation, in language, in thought and in action. George Alaska claims that â€Å"our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical nature. † Tall metaphor is described in two senses: in narrow sense, metaphor is figure of speech, one thing is described in terms of another. So metaphor is the combination of three components: tenor(object), vehicle(image), ground(sense) and is described as a resemblance between image and object. To explain more, we can say that the tenor and vehicle are connected by a verb that creates resemblance. The verb â€Å"to be† is often used to say the tenor is the vehicle. In broad sense metaphor is explained as what Newark define metaphor. In this broad sense metaphor is the relation between mind and cognition. From historical point of view, metaphor is a Greek word for transport and is defined as a transportation of concepts from its normal location to a new location. In the past, metaphor was figure of speech or form of figurative language that defined in terms of aesthetic and rhetorical points. It has been analyzed in term of components (image, object, sense) and types (dead, click, recent†¦ ). But nowadays, metaphor is seen in perspective of conceptualization and idealization. So the cognitive conceptual stylistic approaches are chosen. Metaphor is similar to simile. In simile A is like B, but in metaphor â€Å"like† or â€Å"as† are not used. It means that in simile the comparison stated explicitly, while in metaphor and simile depends on this point of similarity between topic and image. This implicit similarity may be understood from context. You read "Translation of image in metaphor" in category "Papers" Different type of metaphor Newark expresses six types of metaphor. 1 . Dead metaphor: â€Å"Dead metaphors are metaphors where one is hardly conscious of he image, frequently relate to universal terms of space and time, the main part of body and main human activity. In translation of dead metaphor the same image is transferred. â€Å"An example of a dead metaphor would be the ‘body of an essay. ‘ In this example, ‘body’ was initially an expression that drew on the metaphorical image of human anatomy applied to t he subject matter in question. 2. Click metaphor: â€Å"Click metaphors are metaphors that have outlived their usefulness , that are used as substitute for clear thought , often emotively , but without corresponding to the facts of matter. Different image is made from SSL to TTL. Absence makes the heart grow fonder is a proverb click. Achilles heel is an allusion click. Acid test is an idiom click. Age before beauty is a catchphrase click. Alive and kicking is a doublet click. Avoid like the plague is a simile click 3. Stock or standard metaphor: Stock or standard metaphor is an â€Å"established metaphor which in an informal context is an efficient and conscious method of covering a physical or mental situation both referentially and pragmatically and which is not deadened by overuse. † In translation of standard metaphor the same image must be constructed n TTL. 4. Adapted metaphor: This type of metaphor â€Å"is actually a stock metaphor that has been adapted into a new context by its speaker or writer(fleetness’ of a stock metaphor has been adapted or personalized in some way)† It can be translated by an equivalent adapted metaphor. 5. Recent metaphor: â€Å"This type of metaphor is produced through coining; they are often ‘anonymously’ coined†. Recent metaphors should be translated using continental analysis. 6. Original metaphor: â€Å"Original metaphors, are created or quoted by the SSL writer or speaker usually to make discourse more interesting and often used to highlight particular points. Translator has some choices: literal translation, reduction to sense or modification of the metaphor. Alaska and Johnson determine 3 type of metaphor under the title of conceptual metaphor: 1 . Orientation metaphor: spatial orientation (up-down, in-out) is the concern. For example: happy is up. Sad is down: I’ m feeling up today. He’s really low these days. 2. Ontological metaphor: an abstraction such as emotion and ideas is replaced by a concrete thing such as object, substance or entity. In this definition some words need some explanation. Entity is made when an abstraction is replaced by concrete physical object. For example, the mind is represented as a machine: my mind Just isn’t operating today. When abstraction is represented as material, substance is made. For example: there was a lot of good sprinting in the race. Container is one ontological metaphor: when one concept is shown as something that has outside and inside, and holds something else. For instance: get the most out of life. 3. Structural metaphor: this is a conventional metaphor in which one basic domain of experience is transferred to another basic domain. This is the most complex metaphor. For example: argument is war, so we can say: your claims are indefensible. The conventional metaphor in this definition is a metaphor that is used in everyday example: if life is a Journey so we can say: it’s time to get on with your life. George Alaska represents another type of metaphor that is called image metaphor. According to Alaska â€Å"image metaphor maps conventional mental image onto other conventional mental image by virtue of their internal structure. † Image metaphor is different from conceptual metaphor. Some metaphors are used in advertising slogans, so they are o common and convert to something that is used in every day conversations. For example consider the metaphor of â€Å"life is a Journey’ â€Å"Life is a Journey, travel it Airlines) â€Å"Life is a Journey. Enjoy the Ride. â€Å"(Ionians) â€Å"Life is a Journey. Enjoy the ride with a GM reward card. â€Å"(General Motors) â€Å"Life’s a Journey–travel light†(Hugo Boss Perfume) Some metaphors used in the lyrics. For example: Life’s a Journey not a destination And I Just can’t tell Just what tomorrow brings. From the album A Little South of Sanity) Poets use metaphor in poems. A common poem by the use of â€Å"life is a Journey† is The Road Not Taken† from Robert Frost: Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth. Then took the other , as Just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Though as for that the passing there Had worn them really about the same. And both that morning equally lay in leaves no step had trodden black. Oh, I kept the first for another day! Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back. I shall be telling this with a sigh somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I– I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference. Function of metaphor description of entities more comprehensively than in literal language (referential purpose). The second purpose is to delight, to please (pragmatic purpose). The third purpose is to show similarity between two comparable things that have one characteristic in common. Metaphors are also used to suggest the reader to think positively and beautifully to their life and world. â€Å"Love is a homeless guy searching or treasure in the middle of the rain and finding a bag of gold coins and slowly finding out they’re all filled with chocolate and even though he’s heart broken, he can’t complain because he was hungry in the first place. â€Å"(Boo Burnham, â€Å"Love Is†) â€Å"Time, you thief†(Leigh Hunt, â€Å"Rounded†) â€Å"Memory is a crazy woman that hoards colored rags and throws away food. â€Å"(Austin Maloney) â€Å"Life is a zoo in a Jungle. (Peter De Varies) â€Å"Life is a game played on us while we are playing other games. â€Å"(Even Sear) The application of metaphor Metaphor is an important device for communication. The work of Alaska and Johnson wows the application of metaphors in cognitive linguistics, as well as cognitive anthropology, computer science, and philosophy of language also in psychology. In psychology, the work of Alaska and Johnson shows interest in study of metaphor in cognitive and clinical psychology. In a cognitive perspective, metaphor is example of mental model as well as analogical reasoning and problem solving. Analogies and metaphors make sense f the word. Gentler (1983) argues that metaphors help to understanding, decision- making, and action. Duke (1994) shows the effect of metaphor in applied field of software ergonomics. Tahiti, Photos and Grasses (1999) represent the effect of metaphor in communication process. Clinical psychology, concentrate on the role of metaphor in communication processes in psychotherapy. Imagery Imagery is not only the representation of visual image in our mind. Imagery is more complex. And can be categorize in five types, each relevant to one of our sense. Newark claims that language refers to visual image and metaphor is the language reference to other senses. Hearing and touch are more powerful than taste and smell. Different type of imagery Visual images are mental pictures that are constructed in your mind. It means that in order to compare two things use picture rather than word. For example: the Tavern was worn down with age, the wooden bar chipping away, the floors looking black from the dirt, and the ceiling carrying dark brown stains from water damage. Auditory images relate to sound. It is a form of mental imagery that is used to organize sound. This image divided to two auditory modalities; verbal imagery and vividness and detail of auditory imagery depend on the background and condition of brain. As an example of auditory imagery we can express from an ode: â€Å"Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn; Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft, And gathering swallows twitter in the skies. † Kinesthesia images: where the reader can imagine the movements and action of a person or an object. For example: his body moved fluidly throughout the obstacle course, dodging every object thrown at him with agility and grace while speeding down the path. Olfactory images which refers to smell of the odors and scents. Example: the perfume she sprayed reminded her of the sweet and calming scent of mangos and vanilla, a wave of relaxation soon overcoming her. Gustatory images refer to the words in your mind that make you think of taste. For example: the artificial cherry taste of the cough medicine was overly flowery and sweet. Tactile image: allow reader to imagine a feel or texture of certain things. As an example: the blanket was as soft as cotton and as smooth as silk. Organic imagery which is the imagination of feeling what the character feels, such as thirst, hunger. As an example: he was completely drained of energy, his knees buckling from carrying his own weight and eyes drooping from exhaustion. Imagery used in three senses in literary eroticism: in the broad sense, the image need not be mental pictures. In narrow sense, imagery is description of visual objects and senses. The third, imagery means figurative language. Function of imagery Imagery is used in poetry and literature. In poetry is as a backbone of poem because imagery used in poem to evoke a response in reader. Imagery has different connotation and meaning, but for the poet they convey a complete human experience in every few words. Imagery in literature is a collection of techniques that appeal to the senses. There are two main types of language used in literature: secretive and figurative: in the descriptive language we can refer to the senses directly, while in the figurative language we should use some description and invoke other meaning. To create imagery in literature, both types of languages are used. The descriptive language use imagery directly to create a vivid, realistic description of the sense. This describes the appearance and setting, the different senses. Comprehension of metaphor There are some theories related to metaphor comprehension: 1 . Interaction theory: (proposed by Richards (1965), black (1962)), in this view the interaction between tenor and vehicle creates metaphor. . Mapping theory: (proposed by Alaska(1987)), this view use the terms of â€Å"source domain† and â€Å"target domain† to show the directionality of relation between these domains that called mapping. 3. Blending theory: in metaphor there are two psychological spaces: source psychological space and target psychological space. These two spaces make a new space. The sense of metaphor called generic space. If the source, target and generic spaces create a new space metaphor is made. Metaphor translation According to Newark, â€Å"whilst the central problem of translation is the overall choice translation of metaphor†. Unremarkable; 104) In order to interpretation of metaphors, translator can choose among some possibilities: 1 . Exact equivalence of original metaphor, 2. A metaphorical phrase which express a similar sense, 3. Untranslatable metaphor replaced with approximate literal paraphrase Problems relating to metaphor translation Adage points out â€Å"since a metaphor in SSL is, by definition, a semantic novelty, it can clearly have no existing equivalence in the TTL†. Another problem relates to what Limier claims † most words in a language have absorbed cultural aspects and historical experiences†. Metaphors often are culture-bound, and the best way for translation is direct translation. Metaphor as an issue in translation study Prescription versus description These two polarities (prescription and description) are one aspect of translation problem. The advocates of prescriptive approach are Nadia, Van den Broke, Newark and the advocates of descriptive approach are Tour, Snell Horny, Baker. (Fernando et al 2003:61) These approaches seeking SST faithfulness have been increasingly disregarded in favor of target oriented studies, which had an impact on the concept of equivalence. Transgenic equivalence thus doesn’t pursue ‘perfect’ but rather ‘acceptable’ rendering (Arabian-Lavaliere’s) Classical versus conceptual perspective Another classification in study of metaphor is the polarities of classical and conceptual approach. While the principal of these two approaches are different, in recent decades some attempts have been done to combine these two approaches. In the classical view, metaphor was a rhetorical figure or a device to add interest to the text. At the same time, metaphor has been seen as something interesting, peripheral, as an object in realm of poetic rather than empirical analysis. Traditional understanding of metaphor as a figure of speech has been recently replaced with a more complex conceptual, cognitive approach(Schaeffer 2004). The publication of ‘Metaphors we live by (1980) by Alaska and Johnson change the whole world of study. In recent years the new conceptual view of metaphor is the most important view. Alaska and Johnson argues that marathons are nothing less than demonstration of the whole system of experience and thought of human society- in other words, â€Å"metaphor permeate and pervade both languages and thought†( Fernando 2003:65). So metaphor is an expression of conceptual mapping, while this view is the same of lassie view but it is said that mapping is a surface demonstration of the relation in a deeper level. Descriptive: _cultural Horny(1988-95), Towboats(1993) _(UN)translatability and cultural overlap(Adage(1976-1987) _(UN)translatability and structure of cultural information(Van Den Broke(1981) Prescriptive keeping the same metaphorical image _changing it into a simile _substituting by equivalent metaphor in the TTL _keeping the same metaphorical image and adding explanation _paraphrase Horny(1988-1995) claims that some abstract rule cannot describe metaphor, and the unction of metaphor within a context should be considered. Newark never said anything about the choice from among the procedure. Alaska and Johnson argue that â€Å"the metaphors that are most alive and most deeply entrenched, efficient and powerful are those that are so automatic as to be unconscious and effortless†. In recent work related to metaphor translation, the cognitive approach is adopted by different theorists and statisticians. They look at the metaphor not as stereotyped types, but as a process of mapping between two different domains that called the source domain and target domain. For example in the statement â€Å"this room is an oven† the target domain is our understanding of the concept of heat for it is the concept we wish to express through the metaphor. The source domain is conceptualized as â€Å"an enclosed heated compartment_ an extremely hot place, which is vehicle for the metaphorical transfer. The whole metaphor can be expressed as â€Å"heat is an enclosed heated compartment. † The selection of translation method In order to preserve the image of metaphor 1 . Literal translation: the image in the target text is the same image transferred from source text. 2. The image in source text is replaced by another form in 3. Image is transferred but annotation is added. This is used when target text. There are cultural differences. So by the use of annotation the reader with different cultural background can understand metaphor. Mapping In this view instead of terms tenor and vehicle, two other terms are used that called source domain and target domain. In this theory, metaphor is the projection from source domain to target domain. Mapping between these two domains helps the reader to understand conceptual metaphor and the translator to translate effectively. Translation of metaphor: 1 . There isn’t the same metaphor In the target text 2. The metaphor existing in target text, but the mapping doesn’t follow directly. There are three possible reasons for this. -in target text another meaning is created. -the mapping doesn’t occur in target language -the mapping has restriction. Now the choice of translator depends on the existence of conceptual metaphor. If the conceptual metaphor doesn’t exist in target language, the translator has two choices: whether translate literally and add an explanation or without any consideration to mage-schematic mapping, translate the meaning of metaphor. But if conceptual metaphors are the same in source or target language the translation is as follow: if mapped instance is the same, an exact translation is used. And if different mapping is created in target language there are two choices: Use an explanatory simile or an instance with the same meaning is replaced. Finally if there isn’t image-schema mapping in two languages, an explanatory simile is used or explanation added to direct translation. Cognitive approach Mandible In this model the cultural beliefs and values between two culturally different faculty is added when cultural differences are existed. If cultural background of two language readers is the same so we can say mapping conditions in the SSL and TTL are similar, and cultural gap create different mapping condition. These two conditions are basic terms used in mandible’s Cognitive Translation Hypothesis. Mandible(1995) argues that translation of metaphor with a similar mapping condition(SCM) is simple and less time-consuming. When translator face with different mapping condition(DIM), has some choices: rendering the metaphor to simile, paraphrasing, footnote, explanation and omission. Mandible intended to show the translator needs to make a shift between mapping condition of source and target language. Coves Coves (2005) expresses the regularities of the ways conceptual metaphors are expressed linguistically in different languages. In this model the translation of sixteen English metaphorical linguistic expression of â€Å"Time is money’ metaphor as described in Alaska and Johnson is examined. Coves characterized each example by one or several patterns to show whether the form, literal meaning, figurative meaning, conceptual metaphor are similar or different. He compares the linguistic expression of conceptual metaphor in two languages of English and Hungarian. He explain that different kind of possibilities or patterns are as follows: a. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions and similar lexical implementations. B. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions but different lexical implementations. C. Metaphors of different mapping conditions but similar lexical implementations. D. Metaphors of different mapping conditions and different lexical implementations. AH Hosanna In the criticism of Mandible approach, AH Hosanna(2007) added one scheme, and present three schemas for metaphor translation. . Metaphors with similar mapping condition ( these are cultural universal SSL metaphors) 2. Metaphors have similar mapping condition but lexically implemented in different way( in this category, the ethical system in the TTL and SSL make metaphors different in lexical aspect) 3. Metaphors have different mapping condition( include culture-bound SSL metaphors) AH Hosanna also criticizes the Naiad’s equivalents. Nadia believes that the translation should create the same response in TTL reader as in the SSL reader. AH Hosanna claims that this equivalence is impossible practically and can be applied only under two notations: the translator knows the experience and world view of TTL readership or translator knows the best way to adapt text with experience of TTL readership. Alaska and Johnson(1980) believe that metaphor is not only a linguistic things, but also is perceived in thought and action. So in the cognitive view of metaphor, the psychological, coloratura and linguistic aspects are considered. Another model for metaphor translation is the model of Schaeffer(2004) and Strainers(1993). Their approach is descriptive. The political texts in English and German are compared. Schaffer express five type of metaphor translation. . Manifestation having been accounted for at the micro-level 2. Structural components of the base conceptual schema in the SST are replaced by expression that make entailment’s explicit. 3. Metaphor is more elaborate in TTT. . SST and TTT employ different metaphorical expressions which can be combined under a more abstract conceptual metaphor. 5. The expression in teeth reflects a They criticize the models of Mandible(1995), Coves(2005), and AH Hosannas(2007). They noted that translation of metaphors in this model is different from mapping condition and lexical implementation. In this model there are six logically possible schemes on a cog nativ e basis. Some English metaphors and their Persian subtitles in 3 American movies (Face off, Con Air, Speed) are considered. These six schemes are as follows: 1. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions and similar lexical implementation For example: I’d like to stand on my own two feet Definition: to become independent Translation in Persian: The word for word translation: I’d like to stand on my own feet 2. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions but different lexical implementations. For example: she is real 10. Definition: talented and knowledgeable Translation in Persian: The word for word translation: she is 20. 3. Metaphors of different mapping conditions but similar lexical implementations. For example: he calls his teacher by his first name. Definition: to have a friendly relation with Translation in Persian: ss Is-a The word for word translation: he calls his teacher by his first name. 4. Metaphors of different mapping conditions and different lexical implementations. For example: somebody gets the gasohol out here Definition: annoying person Translation in Persian: The word for word translation: somebody get the stick out of here. The SSL metaphor doesn’t exist in TTL For example: he is a late bloomer There isn’t any equivalent in TTL So the TTL speaker use literal language to explain 6. The TTL metaphor doesn’t exist in the SSL (the SSL speaker use literal language, TTL speaker conceptualize an identity in metaphorical structure. Metaphor in Persian poems In Persian poetry, especially the lyric (odes), feeling, thought and situation or even the persons are described b y metaphor. There are two reasons for this; first of all are the poetic aspects of metaphor; the other reason is that it is politically incorrect to express feeling explicitly. Different aspects of love and characteristics of beloved, nature, wine are described by metaphor. Hafiz employs metaphor to mask his real meaning. He uses code words which do not represent their ordinary meaning. Metaphoric wine Wine is used in Persian poetry either in actual sense or in metaphoric sense. Hafiz sometimes use wine to refer to beloved, friend, teacher or master or God. Attar also refers to wine metaphorically as follow: 15 Metaphor in describing beloved: The beloved often is image of an idealized abstract entity rather than a physical How to cite Translation of image in metaphor, Papers

Louis Abdul Farrakhan Essays - Nation Of Islam,

Louis Abdul Farrakhan American religious leader, head of the Nation of Islam, a black religious organization in the United States that combines some of the practices and beliefs of Islam with a philosophy of black separatism. Farrakhan preaches the virtues of personal responsibility, especially for black men, and advocates black self-sufficiency. Farrakhan's message has appealed primarily to urban blacks and draws on a long history of black nationalists who have called for black self-reliance in the face of economic injustice and white racism. His more inflammatory remarks have caused critics to claim that he has appealed to black racism and anti-Semitism to promote his views. Born Louis Eugene Wolcott in New York City, Farrakhan grew up in Boston, Massachusetts. He attended Winston-Salem Teacher's College in North Carolina, and worked as a nightclub singer in the early 1950s. In 1955 Malcolm X, a minister for the Nation of Islam, convinced Wolcott to join the organization. Wolcott dropped his last name and became known as Minister Louis X. The practice of dropping surnames is common among black Muslims, who often view them as names that were imposed on slaves and handed down over the years by white society. He later adopted the name Abdul Haleem Farrakhan and came to be known as Louis Farrakhan. Farrakhan's speaking and singing abilities helped him to rise to prominence within the Nation of Islam, and he led the group's mosque in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1963 a split developed between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, and Malcolm X was suspended as a minister. Malcolm X had become increasingly dissatisfied with the group's failure to participate in the growing Civil Rights Movement, and Muhammad seemed threatened by the growing popularity of Malcolm X. Farrakhan sided with Muhammad in this dispute. In 1964 Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam and formed a new group, the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). Farrakhan publicly criticized Malcolm X for his break with the Nation of Islam. In 1965 Malcolm X was assassinated while addressing an OAAU rally in New York City. Three black Muslims were eventually convicted and jailed for the killing. While Farrakhan denied any connection with the shooting, and never faced any charges related to Malcolm X's death, he later conceded that he had helped to create an atmosphere that may have induced others to carry out the assassination. After the death of Malcolm X, Farrakhan became the head of a large mosque in Harlem, a neighborhood in New York City, and was the principal spokesperson for Muhammad. Farrakhan held high office in the Nation of Islam until Muhammad died in 1975. Muhammad's son, Wallace Muhammad, succeeded his father and asked Farrakhan to move to Chicago to assume a new national position. Wallace Muhammad downplayed Black Nationalism, admitted nonblack members, and stressed strict Islamic beliefs and practices. Under Wallace Muhammad, the group's name changed to the World Community of Islam in the West, and later, to the American Muslim Mission. In the late 1970s Farrakhan led a dissident faction within the organization that opposed any changes in the major beliefs and programs that had been instituted by Elijah Muhammad. In 1978 Farrakhan left Wallace Muhammad's organization and formed a new organization that assumed the original name, the Nation of Islam, and reasserted the principles of black separatism. Farrakhan's public profile rose throughout the 1980s as he established new mosques, used radio appearances to increase his following in black communities, and was the featured speaker at events that often drew large crowds. His message of black self-reliance and mistrust of whites struck a responsive chord among young urban blacks, many of whom viewed Farrakhan as a courageous leader willing to confront a racist society. His followers praised his insistence that blacks assume moral and economic responsibility for themselves, that they avoid drugs and crime, that they provide for their children, and that they stay in school and become involved in their communities. Controversy surrounding the Nation of Islam also grew, primarily because Farrakhan attacked white society and voiced the anti-Semitism growing among some blacks in the inner cities. He was once quoted as calling Judaism a "gutter religion" and referred to German dictator Adolf Hitler, who was responsible for killing millions of Jews, as a great man. Farrakhan's controversial remarks on the radio and at press conferences were widely condemned by other black leaders. In the 1990s Farrakhan continued his call for poor blacks to make stronger commitments to education and to their families. He also called on blacks to end black-on-black crime and

Ground Level Ozone Regulations Essays - Smog, Environment

Ground Level Ozone Regulations Essays - Smog, Environment Ground Level Ozone Regulations What: In 1997 the Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) established new ozone standards. The EPA also placed special restrictions on twenty-two states in the Ohio Valley and Midwest regions to prevent emissions from coal-burning power plants from being carried into the New England States by wind currents. (Tennessee is one of these twenty-two states.) Both of these rulings were recently either struck down or placed on hold by Federal Appeals Courts. Why: The regulations put into place in 1997 by the EPA were more restrictive than the 1990 standards. The regulations limit the amount of ground level ozone and fine particle pollution permitted. Ground level ozone is produced by nitrogen oxide(NOx) which is created by burning fossil fuels. Since gasoline and diesel are both fossil fuels, then NOx is a major component of automobile emissions. Several members of the trucking and fossil fuel industries, as well as members of the twenty-two state region, have challenged the regulations in Federal Court and have been successful in blocking the implementation of the new rules. In the past two months, two separate Federal Court Of Appeals panels have ruled that the EPAs authority to establish clean air standards is not properly delegated by Congress under the Clean Air Act. Therefore, since the EPA is a part of the Executive branch of government and not the Legislative, they have no authority to produce regulations on their own. The plaintiffs in the case also argued that the amount of pollution a person can tolerate has not been established and until it is the EPA should not make the current regulations more restrictive. How: The main actors in this event are the American Trucking Associations and their fellow plaintiffs, the twenty-two state coalition, the EPA, and the Federal Appeals Court. Why would the American Trucking Associations and other fossil fuel burning industries want to limit the EPAs authority? What do they have to gain? Last year, according to the EPAs own press release detailing their enforcement efforts in fiscal year 1998, the EPA referred 266 criminal cases to the Department of Justice, as well as 411 civil court cases. Approximately half of the civil cases required violators to change the way they manage their facilities or to reduce their emissions or discharges. The EPA also assessed almost $93 million dollars in criminal fines and another $92 million in civil penalties. In addition to fines and penalties, polluters spent over $2 billion dollars to correct violations. Not included in this estimate would be the legal expenses incurred or the advertising and marketing costs required to mend a damaged pubic relations image. Clearly it is in the industries best financial interest if the regulations are less restrictive. Many companies that spent large amounts of money to meet the 1990 Clean Air Act standards would have to spend even more to meet the amended 1997 standards. Do the states in the twenty-two state region have another reason to argue against the standards? According to Sean Cavanaghs article in the April 4, 1999 edition of the Chattanooga Times/Free Press, Atlanta lost $700 million in federal roads money as a result of failing to come up with a pollution containment plan. In addition, the state of Georgia had to fund a state superagency to develop and enforce transit plans that meet federal standards. The states joined the industrial groups in claiming that the new standards are too strict and are unnecessary. Chattanooga is not expected to meet the new requirements by the year 2000 deadline and Chattanooga Mayor Kensey and Tennessee Governor Sundquist were two of the public officials who protested the new standards as being too strict. Are the new standards too strict? How does the EPA determine the required levels? According to the press release issued by the EPA following the courts decision, the Federal Courts are not questioning the science and process conducted by the EPA justifying the setting of new, more protective standards. The EPA claims that their standards, which are designed to limit the affects that smog and soot have on people with respiratory problems, protect 125 million Americans including 35 million children. The Federal Courts only have issue with the constitutionality of certain parts of the Clean Air Act that allow the EPA to establish clean air regulations in the interest of public health. The EPA is recommending that the Department of Justice appeal the ruling to the US Supreme Court. Several interest groups are closely watching the case. The powerful industrial and truckers lobby groups are supporting the plaintiffs, while several environmental lobby groups and health associations, such as the American Lung Association, are supporting the EPAs efforts.

Heres How to Calculate pH Values

Here's How to Calculate pH Values Heres a quick review of how to calculate pH and what pH means with respect to hydrogen ion concentration, acids, and bases. Key Takeaways pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a chemical solution is.Normally, pH runs from 0 to 14.A neutral pH value is 7. A value less than 7 is acidic, while a value greater than 7 is basic.The formula for pH is  pH -log[H]. This means pH is the negative base 10 logarithm (log on a calculator) of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. To calculate it, take the log of the hydrogen ion concentration and reverse the sign to get the answer. Review of Acids, Bases, and pH Formula There are several ways to define acids and bases, but pH only refers to hydrogen ion concentration and is only meaningful when applied to aqueous (water-based) solutions. When water dissociates it yields a hydrogen ion and a hydroxide. H2O ↔ H OH- When calculating pH, remember that [] refers to molarity, M. Molarity is expressed in units of moles of solute per liter of solution (not solvent). If you are given concentration in any other unit (mass percent, molality, etc.), convert it to molarity in order to use the pH formula. Using the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions, the following relationship results: Kw [H][OH-] 1x10-14 at 25 °Cfor pure water [H] [OH-] 1x10-7Acidic Solution: [H] 1x10-7Basic Solution: [H] 1x10-7 How to Calculate pH and [H] The equilibrium equation yields the following formula for pH: pH -log10[H][H] 10-pH In other words, pH is the negative log of the molar hydrogen ion concentration. Or, the molar hydrogen ion concentration equals 10 to the power of the negative pH value. Its easy to do this calculation on any scientific calculator because it will have a log button. This is not the same as the ln button, which refers to the natural logarithm. Example: Calculate the pH for a specific [H]. Calculate pH given [H] 1.4 x 10-5 M pH -log10[H]pH -log10(1.4 x 10-5)pH 4.85 Example: Calculate [H] from a known pH. Find [H] if pH 8.5 [H] 10-pH[H] 10-8.5[H] 3.2 x 10-9 M Example: Find the pH if the H concentration is 0.0001 moles per liter. pH -log[H]Here it helps to rewrite the concentration as 1.0 x 10-4 M because if you understand how logarithms work, this makes the formula: pH -(-4) 4 Or, you could simply use a calculator and take: pH - log (0.0001) 4 Usually, you arent given the hydrogen ion concentration in a problem but have to find it from a chemical reaction or acid concentration. Whether this is easy or not depends on whether youre dealing with a strong acid or a weak acid. Most problems asking for pH are for strong acids because they completely dissociate into their ions in water. Weak acids, on the other hand, only partially dissociate, so at equilibrium, a solution contains both the weak acid and the ions into which it dissociates. Example: Find the pH of a 0.03 M solution of hydrochloric acid, HCl. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid that dissociates according to a 1:1 molar ratio into hydrogen cations and chloride anions. So, the concentration of hydrogen ions is exactly the same as the concentration of the acid solution. [H 0.03 M pH - log (0.03)pH 1.5 pH and pOH You can easily use the pH value to calculate pOH if you recall: pH pOH 14 This is particularly useful if youre asked to find the pH of a base since youll usually solve for pOH rather than pH. Check Your Work When youre performing a pH calculation, its a good idea to make sure your answer makes sense. An acid should have a pH much less than 7 (usually 1 to 3), while a base has a high pH value (usually around 11 to 13). While its theoretically possible to calculate a negative pH, in practice pH values should be between 0 and 14. This, a pH higher than 14 indicates an error either in setting up the calculation or else using the calculator.

Country (China) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Country (China) - Research Paper Example As a function of seeking to understand and find the current economic situation that China faces today, the following analysis will not only provide a brief historical glimpse into the determinant factors which it helps to define China within the way it can currently be understood, the analysis will also be contingent upon discussing the outlook and ramifications of economic policies that are currently engaged within the People’s Republic of China. Through such a unit of analysis, it is the hope of this author that the reader will gain a more informed understanding with respect to the determinants of Chinese economic policy as well as the threats and potential weaknesses that the nation faces within the immediate and distant future. Firstly, in seeking to answer the question of whether or not the People’s Republic of China can be considered as a triad nation, the reader must understand that triad nations are defined as those nations that only represent 8% of the world's total population – but account for 50% of its gross domestic product. Due to the fact that the Chinese population is currently in excess of 1.3 6 billion individuals, it cannot be assumed or understood that China is in any way indicative of a triad nation. Whereas it is true that the GDP of China is massive, the population differential that is thus far been discussed ultimately convinces the reader that China cannot be considered as such. Currently, China exhibits an unbelievably low unemployment rate of around 4.1%. Before discussing or analyzing this statistic to a further degree, it must be understood and appreciated that many of the statistics that come out the People’s Republic of China are ultimately suspect. Without casting further aspersions upon the way in which the People’s Republic of China is administered, it must be understood that the Communist Party is ultimately the sole power that directs the fiscal and economic policy within the People’s Republic of China. As such, the level and extent to which this entity can be relied upon for verifiable truth and reasonable statistics may well be quite limited. However, notwithstanding this fact, the rate of unemployment that is exhibited within the People’s Republic of China is astoundingly low. By means of comparison, the gross domestic product of the People’s Republic of China is currently in excess of $8.20 trillion dollars. Somewhat surprisingly, the GDP per capita, measured within the same 2012 time period, only stands at $6090. As can relatively be noted, the GDP per capita as compared to the total gross domestic product of the entire nation is quite low; blending a level of understanding with regards to why she labor is so abundantly available within China and helping the reader to come to an understanding of why the People’s Republic of China continues to the a producer of so many consumer goods that require simple and complex levels of application. Many economists and businessmen alike have termed China’s rapid growth as an economic miracle. Part of the reason for this is the fact that the GDP growth rate between the period of 1990 and 2010 averaged approximately 12%. Although the GDP growth rate currently stands at a lower level due to the 2007/2008 economic slowdown,

Joseph G. Mccoy Historic Steches of the Cattle Trade of the West and Article

Joseph G. Mccoy Historic Steches of the Cattle Trade of the West and SouthWest 1874 - Article Example The author aptly refers to Red river and northern states, which endorses the fact that McCoy encourages the Texans to take the herds from Texas to Abilene, Kansas. 2. While taking the history of the document under-examination into account, it becomes evident that the author appears to be discussing the herds’ trade phenomenon as well as social circumstances during the years of civil war that had captured the USA during mid 1860s. In addition to this, the circumstances discussed in the document also ratify the situation of unrest and chaos in various states of America. Furthermore, McCoy has also cited the years 1866 and 1867 while creating the article. Nevertheless, the article was written in 1874, almost six to seven years after the incident had taken place. Making such a long delay while creating the article may arise some doubts regarding its validity. Somehow, the original date of the happening of the circumstances would certainly be few years before the document was produ ced. Consequently, the writer would surely be collecting the memories of the years between 1868 and 1870. So, the event discussed in the document would have taken place by 1868-70. 3. In the document under-study, McCoy has elucidated the problems faced by the cattle owners during and after the American Civil War era. These issues include the carrying of the cattle from one area to the remote regions of the vast country, dealing with the customers belonging to divergent states, bargaining problems while selling the cattle, deceit and frauds inflicted upon them by the swindlers, contagious diseases the cattle caught and price issues while entering into deals with the buyers. Moreover, McCoy has also described the physical dangers observed by the drovers including the life risks as well as of getting attacked or robbed during their long and dreary journey with the aim of selling the animals. Hence, the author has skillfully elaborated various challenges the longhorn dealers had to unde rgo during late 1860s. 4. The document under the title Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade of the West and Southwest narrates in third person the developments and challenges related to the herds owners, entrepreneurs, traders, ranchers and dealers while carrying and shifting the cattle from one state to the others by applying different methods, manners and sources of communications according to their resources and financial positions. The author has cited the names of various cities and states related to the herd trade, which include Texas, Chicago, Illinois, Quincy, Hades, Leavenworth, Kansas and Abilene. The description of the chronicle of events in such in-depth details endorses the concept that either McCoy had directly been involved in the cattle trade as an entrepreneur, or had kept and owned the longhorn herds by himself. Furthermore, having well informed with regards to the prices, number and affairs of the cattle proves him as a full time cattle entrepreneur. 5. It is a f act beyond suspicion that writers, poets, philosophers and intellectuals serve as the brain of society, who by dint of their thoughtfulness, guide the other members of society by showing the right path and by pointing out the evils and problems prevailing within some particular area, region or community. The same is also applied to McCoy, who has also elucidated the challenges that used to arise on the way of

Business Essays Company Strategy Business

Business Essays Company Strategy Business Company Strategy Business Your company has a clear goal and a solid strategy you have the right people in the right places you have great ideas and the resources to execute them. So does your competition. Over the past decades, the role of economic organizations in society has been approached from various perspectives and alternative conceptualizations of business have been introduced (Grant, 2005; Skurnik, 2005). The traditional idea of business is that an efficient organization is formed to produce profit (Ansoff, 1965; Drucker, 1958). Lately, the concept of business, including the objectives and strategies of business companies, has been dominated by the idea of profit maximation for investor owners (Grant, 2005). Strategic management researchers have been proponents of the theory that provide support to the relationship between the environment, firm strategy, structure, and performance. Several management researchers of the likes of Dill (1958), Chandler (1962), Lawrence Lorsch (1967), Jurkovich (1974), Miles Snow (1978), Porter (1980, 1985), Bourgeois (1980, 1981), Hambrick (1981, 1983), Dess Davis (1984), Dess and Beard (1984), Mintzberg (1988), Miller (1986), Hamel Prahalad (1991), Kotha Valdamani (1995), and others have directly or indirectly made attempts to theorize the effects of single or multiple constructs, visvis the firm environment, strategy, and structure on firm performance. These efforts have led to the incremental development of the strategic management literature that stress on the relationships between the constructs mentioned above. The levels of strategy, i.e. corporate level, business level, and functional level have been defined by management theorists in order to identify and conceptualize the differences in approach in managing firms across these levels of company hierarchy. Corporate level strategies focus on what businesses should the company invest in, in order to satisfy the interests of the stakeholders and to maximize the value of stockholders investments. The focus here is on issues pertaining to firm growth and liquidity (e.g. Kim, Mauer, Sherman, 1998), which influence stockholders satisfaction. On the other hand, business level strategies entail ways in which a company would seek to attain competitive advantage through effective positioning. It should be noted that these positioning strategies of companies would vary depending on the industry setting (Hill Jones, 1995). In corporate finance, although business level strategies are not defined as positioning strategies, the objectives of these strategies and their effects are considered within the diversification and liquidity concepts of corporate strategies. The objective of functional level strategies is to achieve competitive advantage through strategies directed at improving the effectiveness of functional operations within a company (Hill Jones, 1995; p. 12). Note that in corporate finance the functional level strategies are considered as aggregates reported as part of the financial statements of individual business units, which are then analyzed in connection to the corporate strategies. It should also be noted that the business and functional strategies are impacted by the way in which corporate strategies are formulated. Although it may be argued that a bottom-up approach of defining functional level and business level strategies will not entail the effects of corporate strategies on functional and business level strategies, in reality firms define their resource allocation strategies first by taking into consideration the effects of these strategies on overall corporate performance. Once the resource allocation decisions are formulated at the corporate level, managers at the business level can then identify the appropriate strategies to meet the objectives laid out by managers at the corporate level. Management theorists have suggested that in order to achieve competitive advantage, the firm should achieve a fit between the environment, strategy, structure and controls (Jennings Lumpkin, 1992). Effective strategy formulation and implementation lead to the attainment of performance objectives identified by the stakeholders of the firm. Whereas the concept of fit between the environment and strategy is important in order to achieve competitive success, Hamel Prahalad (1991) suggested that strategic intent is the key to achieving success as compared to strategic fit, the paradigm that most management theorists followed until the late eighties. The authors suggest that strategic intent is about building new resources and competencies to tap future opportunities as opposed to the strategic fit perspective of achieving a fit between existing company resources and current environment opportunities. Hierarchical Levels of Strategy Corporate Level Strategy The corporate level strategy entails decisions made by corporate managers to insure that company stakeholders are satisfied at all times. With this as the goal, the managers at the corporate level of company hierarchy decide to invest in business(es) that result in long-term profit maximization and increased returns to the firms stockholders. Corporate strategies entail two distinct dimensions that include measures pertaining to growth (Zook Rogers, 2001) and liquidity (Kim et al., 1998). Corporate managers decide what businesses to invest in and how liquid the assets of the firm should be to maximize the value of the firm, both in the short and long term scenario. Business Level Strategy Business level strategy applies to the unit level of the organization and is referred to as those strategies that are applied at the strategic business unit (SBU) level. SBU level strategy is formulated and implemented by business level managers, who are also referred to as unit level managers or general managers. While this may be the case in the manufacturing industries, the hospitality industry general manager does not necessarily formulate these strategies, rather they are instrumental in the implementation of the strategy. The formulation of business level strategies is entailed in the corporate strategy when the corporate managers define the positioning of the firm. Since business level strategy is a result of market segmentation and positioning strategies, the generic strategies of cost leadership, differentiation, and focus (Porter, 1980) result from the way corporate managers conceive the orientation and positioning of the product during the time of its inception. This logic also applies to the Miles Snows typology of prospector, defender, analyzer, and reactor. These generic typologies are a result of the corporate level managers positioning strategies, and the budget allocated to the units to pursue that strategy. In this regard, the hospitality industry is different from the manufacturing industry in terms of the distinction between the three levels of strategy. There is an overlap in the decisions made at the three levels, with the corporate level influencing the decisions of the unit level and the functional level. This may not be apparent by scrutinizing the organizational structure; rather, this results from the job responsibilities that are entrusted to the different levels of management hierarchy, especially the business and functional level. Functional Level Strategy Functional level strategies are those strategies that are initiated by the profit /support centres of an organization. These centres are individual functions that result when activities that are similar in their characteristics and objectives are grouped under a given function. Each separate function should have its own goal and objective, and functional managers formulate strategies to attain those goals and objectives. To be competitively superior to other firms, functional level managers strategize to attain superior efficiency, superior quality, superior customer responsiveness, and superior innovation (Hill Jones, 1995). Although hospitality researchers have posited that manufacturing based strategy theory may not be applicable to the hospitality industry (Murthy, 1994), it can be argued that strategies professed by management theorists have been generalized to apply to any given industry. Strategy has been defined very distinctly in strategic management theory. For instance, according to Chandler (1962), strategy is the determination of basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals. Hofer Shendel (1978) defined strategy as the match among organizational purposes, resources, skills, environment opportunities and risks. Similarly, Thompson Strickland (1981) defined strategy as the manner in which an organization accomplishes its objectives through the formulation of means, matching and allocating resources, and directing its effort to produce results. On the other hand, Bourgeois (1978) defined strategy in terms of a firms relationship with the environment to achieve its objectives, while Mintzberg (1981) defined the term as a pattern in a stream of decisions or actions. These definitions are important for the literature as it defines the domain of strategy in terms of its literal meaning as well as the direction of research efforts that it influences. Although the above definitions of strategy may differ in literal meaning, the underlying theme common to all is the ability of the organization to meet its objectives by directing its efforts in a resourceful manner, aligning them to the developments in the external environment. Having identified this theme in the definition of strategy, it becomes essential to identify whether each individual research domain within the field is a proponent of this ideology professed by eminent researchers. To do so, it is essential to pinpoint the orientations of the sub-domains in the field of strategy.Strategy, in general, refers to how a given objective will be achieved. Consequently, strategy in general is concerned with the relationships between ends and means, that is, between the results we seek and the resources at our disposal. Strategy and tactics are both concerned with formulating and then carrying out courses of action intended to attain particular objectives. For the most part, strategy is concerned with deploying the resources at your disposal whereas tactics is concerned with employing them. Together, strategy and tactics bridge the gap between ends and means .Strategy of an organization is the roadmap towards attainment of its long term goals and objectives. Organizational strategy consists of planning, organizing, execution, and control activities. Strategic management process facilitates in the operationalization of strategy. Strategic thinking has been much influenced by military thinking about the strategy hierarchy of goals, policies and programmes. Strategy itself sets the agenda for future action, strategic goals state what is to be achieved and when (but not how), policies set the guidelines and limits for permissible action in pursuit of the strategic goals, and programmes specify the step-by-step sequence of actions necessary to achieve major objectives and the timetable against which progress can be measured. A well defined strategy integrates an organizations major plans, objectives, policies and programmes and commitments into a cohesive whole. It marshals and allocates limited resources in the best way, which is defined by an analysis of a firms unique strengths and weaknesses and of opportunities and threats in the environment. It considers how to deal with the potential actions of intelligent opponents. The importance of strategic management for the development of regions is growing, together with the effort of the regional representatives to increase the performance and competitive advantage of their regions. Individual countries, regions, cities, and towns compete among each other especially in the acquisition of economic subjects, which create and stabilize new jobs, thereby influencing prosperity and the standard of living of their residents. Strategy choice is a component of strategy formulation that entails identifying the strategic alternatives in tandem with the firms strengths and weaknesses. Since strategy is about identifying the appropriate courses of action, these alternatives vary depending on the hierarchical levels of the organization confirmed by, for instance, Hofer Shendel (1979), who point out that strategy content varies with the level of organizational hierarchy. The hierarchical levels identified by various management theorists in the strategy domain are functional level, business level, and corporate level strategies (Hill Jones, 1995) . The strategic management model suggests that intended strategy is an outcome of certain distinct actions taken by firms. These actions can be categorized as the product of a firms external analysis and internal analysis (Hill Jones, 1995). The external analysis is about understanding the firms external environment to identify opportunities and threats. This analysis includes analyzing the firms remote environment domain, task environment domain, and industry environment domain in order to identify the forces driving change and their impact on the organization during a given time period (Olsen et al., 1998). On the other hand, the internal analysis entails pinpointing what the strengths and weaknesses of the firm are in order to identify the quantity and quality of resources available to the organization (Hill Jones, 1995). The concept that entails analyzing the firms external and internal environment and subsequently identifying the appropriate strategy comes under the strategy formulation sub-domain of strategy research. On the other hand, the sub-domain that deals with designing organizational systems and structures in order to put the strategy into action is termed as strategy implementation. There are three levels of strategies in the organization viz. corporate strategy, business strategy, and functional strategy. The term strategy proliferates in discussions of business. Scholars and consultants have provided myriad models and frameworks for analysing strategic choice (Hambrick and Fredrickson, 2001). For us, the key issue that should unite all discussion of strategy is a clear sense of an organizations objectives and a sense of how it will achieve these objectives. It is also important that the organization has a clear sense of its distinctiveness. For the leading strategy guru, Michael Porter (1996), strategy is about achieving competitive advantage through being different delivering a unique value added to the customer, having a clear and enactable view of how to position yourself uniquely in your industry, for example, in the ways in which Southwest Airlines positions itself in the airline industry and IKEA in furniture retailing, in the way that Marks Spencer used to. To enact a successful strategy requires that there is fit among a companys activities, that they complement each other, and that they deliver value to the firm and its customers. The three companies we have just mentioned illustrate that industries are fluid and that success is not guaranteed. Two of the firms came to prominence by taking on industry incumbents and developing new value propositions. The third was extremely successful and lost this position. While there is much debate on substance, there is agreement that strategy is concerned with the match between a companys capabilities and its external environment. Analysts disagree on how this may be done. John Kay (2000) argues that strategy is no longer about planning or visioning because we are deluded if we think we can predict or, worse, control the future it is about using careful analysis to understand and influence a companys position in the market place. Another leading strategy guru, Gary Hamel (2000), argues that the best strategy is geared towards radical change and creating a new vision of the future in which you are a leader rather than a follower of trends set by others.The idea of strategy has received increasing attention in the management literature. The literature on strategy is now voluminous and strategic management texts grow ever larger to include all the relevant material. Our premise is that a firm needs a well defined sense of its mission, its unique place in its environment and scope and direction of growth. Such a sense of mission defines the firms strategy. A firm also needs an approach to management itself that will harness the internal energies of the organization to the realization of its mission. Historically, views of strategy fall into two camps. There are those who equate strategy with planning. According to this perspective, information is gathered, sifted and analysed, forecasts are made, senior managers reflect upon the work of the planning department and decide what is the best course for the organization. This is a top-down approach to strategy. Others have a less structured view of strategy as being more about the process of management. According to this second perspective, the key strategic issue is to put in place a system of management that will facilitate the capability of the organization to respond to an environment that is essentially unknowable, unpredictable and, therefore, not amenable to a planning approach. We will consider both these views in this text. Our own view is that good strategic management actually encompasses elements of each perspective. Corporate strategy defines the markets and the businesses in which a company will operate. Competitive or business strategy defines for a given business the basis on which it will compete. Corporate strategy is typically decided in the context of defining the companys mission and vision, that is, saying what the company does, why it exists, and what it is intended to become. Competitive strategy hinges on a companys capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses in relation to market characteristics and the corresponding capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses of its competitors. According to Michael Porter, a Harvard Business School professor and the reigning guru of competitive strategy, competition within an industry is driven by five basic factors: Threat of new entrants. Threat of substitute products or services. Bargaining power of suppliers. Bargaining power of buyers. Rivalry among existing firms. Porter also indicates that, in response to these five factors, competitive strategy can take one of three generic forms: (1) focus, (2) differentiation, and (3) cost leadership. Business strategy focuses on how a company competes in a selected industry over markets. The core of the business strategy can be captured in to a question How should we compete? (Grant, 2005: 22-23). Thus, business strategy is closely related to the concept of competitive strategy (Porter, 1987), which is about creating competitive advantage in a chosen industry. Competitive strategy means choosing a different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value (Porter, 1996, 1987). Corporate strategy defines the breadth of the company in relation to an industry and markets, where it competes; it answers the question What business should we be in? (Grant, 2005: 22-23). According to Porter (1996), deciding which target group of customers, varieties, and needs the company should serve is fundamental in developing a strategy. Strategy can be neither formulated nor adjusted to changing circumstances without a process of strategy evaluation. Whether performed by an individual or as part of an organizational review procedure, strategy evaluation forms an essential step in the process of guiding an enterprise. For many executives strategy evaluation is simply an appraisal of how well a business performs. Has it grown? Is the profit rate normal? If the answers to these questions are affirmative, it is argued that the firms strategy must be sound. Despite its unassailable simplicity, this line of reasoning misses the whole point of strategy that the critical factors determining the quality of current results are often not directly observable or simply measured, and that by the time strategic opportunities or threats do directly affect operating results it may well be too late for an effective response. Thus strategy evaluation is an attempt to look beyond the obvious facts regarding the short-term health of a business and appraise instead those more fundamental factors and trends that govern success in the chosen field of endeavour. Strategic thinking has been much influenced by military thinking about the strategy hierarchy of goals, policies and programmes. Strategy itself sets the agenda for future action, strategic goals state what is to be achieved and when (but not how), policies set the guidelines and limits for permissible action in pursuit of the strategic goals, and programmes specify the step-by-step sequence of actions necessary to achieve major objectives and the timetable against which progress can be measured. A well defined strategy integrates an organizations major plans, objectives, policies and programmes and commitments into a cohesive whole. It marshals and allocates limited resources in the best way, which is defined by an analysis of a firms unique strengths and weaknesses and of opportunities and threats in the environment. It considers how to deal with the potential actions of intelligent opponents. A firm competes with a large number of other firms in the business environment. The firm has a two-fold objective. It has to attain its long-term goals in the most efficient manner. At the same time, the firm has to deliver higher value to its customer as compared to other competing firms to gain a sustainable competitive advantage. The roadmap consisting of a comprehensive plan towards achievement of the aforesaid objectives is known as organizational strategy. Strategy, in general, refers to how a given objective will be achieved. Consequently, strategy in general is concerned with the relationships between ends and means, that is, between the results we seek and the resources at our disposal. Strategy and tactics are both concerned with formulating and then carrying out courses of action intended to attain particular objectives. For the most part, strategy is concerned with deploying the resources at your disposal whereas tactics is concerned with employing them. Corporate identity merges strategy, culture, and communications to present a memorable personality to prospects and customers. The term is closely linked to corporate philosophy, the company s business mission and values, as well as corporate personality, the distinct corporate culture reflecting this philosophy, and corporate image. The main objective of corporate identity is to achieve a favourable image among the company s prospects and customers. When a corporation is favourably regarded this is likely to result in loyalty. If the corporate identity is the self-portrayal of a company, then the corporate image is the perception of an organization by the audience. The closer the corporate image is to the corporate identity; the closer the public s perception of a company is to how the company defines itself, making for superior corporate communication. For example, most companies have access to the same technology. If they want to further distinguish themselves, the strategy must rely on another factor than technology: the user experience. As the audience s focus changes constantly, corporate strategies must move in the same direction as the customer. Products are the most important spokespersons for any brand or company. Therefore, the key to defining your corporate identity resides in how well a company communicates its visions and values by means of the identity and image of its products, always keeping the target audience involvement in mind. There is no one best way of strategy. The planning approach can work in a stable, predictable environment. Its critics argue that such environments are becoming increasingly scarce, events make the plan redundant, creativity is buried beneath the weight and protocols of planning and communication rules. Furthermore, those not involved in devising the plan are never committed to its implementation. The second approach emphasizes speed of reaction and flexibility to enable the organization to function best in an environment that is fast-changing and essentially unpredictable. The essence of strategy, according to this view, is adaptability and incrementalism. This approach has been criticized for failing to give an adequate sense of where the organization is going and what its mission is. Critics speak disparagingly of the mushroom approach to management. (Place in a dark room, shovel manure/money on the seeds, close the door, wait for it to grow!) Inconsistency in strategy is not simply a flaw in logic. A key function of strategy is to provide coherence to organizational action. A clear and explicit concept of strategy can foster a climate of tacit co-ordination that is more efficient than most administrative mechanisms. Many high technology firms, for example, face a basic strategic choice between offering high-cost products with high custom-engineering content and lower-cost products that are more standardized and sold at higher volume. If senior management does not enunciate a clear, consistent sense of where the corporation stands on these issues, there will be continuing conflict between sales, design, engineering and manufacturing people. A clear, consistent strategy, by contrast, allows a sales engineer to negotiate a contract with a minimum of coordination the trade-offs are an explicit part of the firms posture.Rumelt (1988). A strategy is a set of objectives, policies and plans that, taken together, define the scope of the enterprise and its approach to business. Rumelt suggests that three questions are central to the challenge of strategy evaluation: Are the objectives of the business appropriate? Are the major policies and plans appropriate? Do the results obtained to date confirm or refute critical assumptions on which The strategy rests? He further suggests that strategy must satisfy four broad criteria: Consistency. The strategy must not present mutually inconsistent goals and policies. Consonance. The strategy must represent an adaptive response to the external environment and to the critical changes occurring within it. Advantage. Strategy must provide for the creation and/or maintenance of a competitive advantage in the selected area of activity. Feasibility. The strategy must neither overtax available resources nor create insoluble problems. Strategic management represents the collection of methods and approaches that are applicable to the regulation of regional development. This process can include the following: Defining the mission of the development of the region it depends on visions, values and expectations of the key implementing entities. Setting the strategic and performance objectives the objectives might comprise e.g. social development of regions, development of infrastructure, improvement of environmental aspects of the life of the local population, better territorial distribution of economic activities in the region etc. Formulating strategy (determining strategic alternatives, their evaluation assessment and selection) we seek to answer the question of how to meet the future objectives. Also essential is to use the results of both the external and internal environment analyses (situation analysis) Introducing and implementing the selected strategy (strategy implementation) this component is related to the further elaboration of regional development strategies into more detailed programs, measures and activities. The success of the strategy implementation depends to a certain degree on the motivation of all the stakeholders and apart from other things it is also associated with the level of culture in the community Evaluating results and proposing corrective measures (strategic control) it serves to ascertain the success rate of the selected strategy and also signals the necessary changes at whichever stage of its implementation. Basic requirement of this process is to increase competitive advantage of the regions in the long run. We can define the regional competitive advantage as the ability of the region to produce products and services, which will be able to compete on the international market, while securing and maintaining the incomes of its inhabitants. Managing risk at the organizational level is considered to be the key to the longterm survival of firms. 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